The 8 theories of altruism: why do we help others for nothing?

Several explanatory proposals on altruistic and empathic behavior.

Giving to others, helping others without expecting anything in return. Although it is not so common nowadays, given that we are immersed in an increasingly individualistic culture. an increasingly individualistic culturewe can still observe from time to time the existence of a large number of acts of spontaneous generosity and disinterested help to others. And not only humans: altruistic acts have been observed in a large number of animals of species as different as chimpanzees, dogs, dolphins or bats.

The reason for this type of attitude has been the subject of debate and research in sciences such as psychology, ethology or biology, generating a large number of theories about altruism.. It is about them that we are going to talk throughout this article, highlighting some of the best known.

Altruism: basic definition

We understand altruism as that pattern of behavior or conduct characterized by the search of the well-being of the others without expecting that it generates any type of benefit useven though such action may even be detrimental to us. The welfare of others is therefore the element that motivates and guides the behavior of the subject, whether we are talking about a specific act or something stable over time.

Altruistic acts are generally well regarded socially and allow to generate welfare in others, something that affects the bonding between individuals in a positive way. However, at a Biological level, altruism implies an action that in principle is not directly beneficial for survival and can even end up putting it at risk or cause death, something that has made different researchers wonder why the emergence of this type of behavior.

Theories on altruism: two major points of view.

Why a living being may be willing to sacrifice its life, cause some harm or simply use its own resources and efforts in one or several actions which that do not bring it any gain has been the object of great investigations from different disciplines, generating a great number of theories. Among all of them, we can highlight two large groups in which the theories on altruism can be inserted

Pseudo-altruistic theories

This type of theories on altruism is one of the most important and has had greater consideration throughout history. They receive the name of pseudo-altruists since what they propose is that in the end altruistic acts do pursue some kind of self-benefit, even if it is at an unconscious level.

This search would not be for a direct and tangible benefit from the act, but rather the motivation behind the altruistic act would be to obtain internal rewards such as self-approval, the feeling of doing something considered good by another or following one's own moral code. Also would also include the expectation of future favors from the beings to whom we provide help.

Purely altruistic theories

This second group of theories considers that altruistic behavior is not due to the intention (conscious or not) of obtaining benefits, but rather that part of the direct intention to generate welfare for the other party.. It would be elements such as empathy or the search for justice that would motivate the action. This type of theories usually take into account how relatively utopian it is to find total altruism, but they value the existence of personality traits tending towards it.

Some of the main explanatory proposals

The above two are the two main existing approaches to the functioning of altruism, but they include a large number of theories. Among them, some of the most noteworthy are the following.

1. Reciprocal altruism

Theory that, from the pseudoaltruism approach, advocates that what really drives altruistic behavior is the expectation that the help provided will subsequently generate an equivalent behavior in the person helped, so that the chances of survival are enhanced in the long run. in situations where one's own resources may not be sufficient.

In addition, the recipient benefits from the help while at the same time tending to feel indebted to the other. tends to feel indebted to the other. It also enhances and favors the possibility of interaction between both individuals, something that favors socialization between unrelated subjects. has the feeling of being indebted.

2. The normative theory

This theory is very similar to the previous one, except that it considers that what moves the helper is the moral/ethical code or values, their structuring and the feeling of obligation towards others derived from them. It is also considered a theory of pseudo-altruism approach, since what is sought with the help to the other is to obey the social norm and the expectations of a world together that have been acquired during socioculturally, avoiding the guilt of not helping and obtaining the gratification of having done what we consider right (thus increasing our self-consideration).

3. Stress Reduction Theory

Also part of the pseudoaltruistic approach, this theory considers that the motive for helping the other is the reduction of the state of discomfort and agitation that the observation of another person's suffering generates in us. Failure to act would generate guilt and increase the subject's discomfort, whereas helping would reduce the discomfort felt by the subject. helping will reduce the discomfort felt by the altruistic subject himself by reducing that of the other.

4. Hamilton's kinship selection

Another of the existing theories is Hamilton's, which considers that altruism is generated as a result of the search for the perpetuation of genes. This theory of eminently biological load values that in nature many of the altruistic behaviors are directed towards members of our own family or with whom we have some type of consanguineous relation. with whom we have some kind of consanguineous relationship..

The act of altruism would allow our genes to survive and reproduce, despite the fact that our own survival could be harmed. it has been observed that a large part of altruistic behavior is generated in different animal species.

5. Cost-benefit calculation model

This model considers the existence of a calculation between the costs and benefits of both acting and not acting when performing an altruistic act, specifying the existence of lower risks than possible benefits to be obtained. The observation of the suffering of others will generate tension in the observer, which will activate the process of calculation. The final decision will also be influenced by other factors, such as the degree of bonding with the subject in need of help.

6. Autonomous altruism

A model more typical of the purely altruistic approach, this proposal assumes that it is the emotions that generate the altruistic act: the emotion towards the subject in distress or towards the situation causes the basic principles of reinforcement and punishment to be disregarded. This model, worked on by Karylowski, among others, takes into account that for altruism to be truly altruistic, it is necessary that that attention be focused on the other (if it were focused on oneself and on the sensations it provokes, we would be dealing with the product of the normative theory: altruism for the sake of feeling good about oneself).

7. Empathy-altruism hypothesis

This hypothesis, by Bateson, also considers altruism as something pure and unbiased by the intention of obtaining any kind of reward. It assumes the existence of several factors to be taken into account, the first step being the ability to perceive the need for help of others, the differentiation between their present situation and the one that would imply their welfare, the salience of this need and the focus on the other. This will generate the appearance of empathy, putting ourselves in the other person's place and experiencing emotions towards him/her.

This will motivate us to seek their welfare, calculating the best way to help the other person (something that could include leaving the help to others). While helping may generate some kind of social or interpersonal reward but that is not the goal of helping in is not the goal of the help itself.

8. Empathy and identification with the other

Another hypothesis that considers altruism as something pure proposes the fact that what generates altruistic behavior is identification with the other, in a context in which the other is perceived as needing help and through identification with him/her we forget the boundaries between the self and the person in need.. This will eventually generate that we seek their welfare, in the same way we would seek our own.

Bibliographical references:

• Batson, CD. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a socio-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ, England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc; England.
• Feigin, S.; Owens, G. and Goodyear-Smith, F. (2014). Theories of human altruism: a systematic review. Annals of Neuroscience and Psychology, 1(1). Available at: http://www.vipoa.org/journals/pdf/2306389068.pdf.
• Herbert, M. (1992). Psychology in Social Work. Madrid: Pirámide.
• Karylowski, J. (1982). Two types of altruistic behavior: Doing good to feel good or to make the other feel good. In: Derlega VJ, Grzelak J, editors. Cooperation and helping behavior: theories and research. New York: Academic Press, 397-413.
• Kohlberg, L. (1984). Essays on moral development. The psychology of moral development. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 2.
• Trivers, R.L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46: 35-57.