Theories of human intelligence

A review of the main explanations of human intellect and its different types.

Being intelligent is good. This is something that everyone knows, since it is assumed that having a high level of intelligence helps us to cope effectively with the different events of life.

However... what exactly is it to be intelligent? What do we mean by intelligence? When it comes to answering these questions, doubts arise, and the answer is neither simple nor insubstantial.

In fact, the study of intelligence is a complex phenomenon that has been extensively and frequently explored in psychology, with a large number of ways of understanding what intelligence is and how it is, and with numerous theories of intelligence that have been put forward. numerous theories of human intelligence have been put forward throughout history..

Intelligence: a complex concept

In a generic way and without going into detail as to what is part of it, we can consider intelligence as the capacity or set of mainly cognitive capacities that allow us to adapt to the environment, solve the problems it poses and even anticipate them successfully. However, the different different authors who have dealt with and studied intelligence have found different definitions of this concept, some of them contradicting each other whileSome of them contradict each other, while others are complementary.

Different approaches have been used in these studies, some having a more experimental, genetic or functional focus. One approach has focused on determining the components of intelligence in order to understand it, this being the approach of the factorial theories on which this article is based.

Two major groups of theories

Although, as we have said, there are the enormous variety of theories as to what we consider intelligence, one of the clearest is that which is most divisive between the different conceptualizations: whether intelligence is one or, on the contrary, there are several types of intelligence.one of the clearest is the one that is the most divisive between the different conceptualizations: whether intelligence is one or, on the contrary, there are several types of intelligence.

A unitary intelligence

The first studies on intelligence and intellectual capacity worked under the assumption that intelligence is a single general, unmodifiable and genetically determined capacity. These theories led to the development of psychometric tests psychometric tests have been developed that assess intelligence based on its reflection in standardized tests, measuring through them the intelligence of the individual.These tests are used to measure the intelligence quotient or IQ. According to these theories, then, intelligence was unifactorial.

Set of abilities

There are other theories which stipulate that intelligence is not a single capability, but rather a set of independent skills and aptitudes. and aptitudes independent of each other. This explains why there are geniuses in some aspects such as music and art who have a limited logical capacity, or intellectual eminences who are incapable of projecting such knowledge or understanding the reactions of others. It is this type of multifactorial theories that are used to create specific intelligence tests depending on the skills that are most interesting to measure.. However, it must be taken into account that at present the scientific context is that intelligence in singular is an entity by itself, although with "ramifications".

Main theoretical proposals

Whether it is considered a single or multiple capacity, the truth is that research on this subject has been extensive and has led to the construction of various theories. Some of the most widely considered throughout history are the following.

1. First approaches: Binet

The name of Alfred Binet is especially known for having been the creator of the first scale to measure intelligence.. This author, who considered intelligence as a single capacity, was one of the first to explore the concept of mental age as the age at which most subjects are capable of performing or solving a given problem. He believed that skills and faculties could be improved with education and training.

The concept of mental age would be used by this author as a measure of intelligence. Subsequent to him, William Stern linked this mental age to chronological age. in order to be able to comparatively evaluate the level of intellectual development and finally with all this Terman would end up creating the concept of Intellectual Quotient or IQ.

2. Spearman's bifactor theory

One of the first theories of intelligence, Spearman proposes in his bifactor theory of intelligence that there is a general intellectual capacity, or G-factor, which is common to all intelligence. or G Factor, which is common to all the activities we carry out.

However, depending on the type of activity we do, we will have to apply specific skills to carry it out, specific capacities that receive the name of Factor s. While the g-factor is hereditary and unmodifiable, the specific skills can be improved through learning and education.

3. Cattell's theory of intelligence

One of the best known theories of intelligence is that of Raymond Cattell.. In his theory, this author interprets, partly based on the bifactor theory, that intellectual capacity is configured by two types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized. Whereas fluid intelligence corresponds to reasoning and the general capacity to adapt to novel situations, without learning influencing the performance carried out, crystallized intelligence refers to the ability to apply learned knowledge throughout life. throughout life.

On the other hand, Cattell did not believe that the g-factor was a reflection of a natural process that actually occurs in the human brain, but would simply be a statistical product caused by the fact that in measuring it is not possible to isolate well the processes that actually exist.

He also explores its development throughout life, stating that crystallized intelligence varies throughout life, increasing with the accumulation of experience, while fluid intelligence would be fixed after brain maturation during adolescence.

4. Vernon's hierarchical model

A type of theory that has also worked in the field of intelligence is that of hierarchical models, whose main representative is Philip Edward Vernon. These models are based on the idea that the specific factors (those specific to the concrete activities that we carry out) are the bases of higher capacities, which form hierarchies until reaching the capacity or general intelligence. The last two divisions before reaching the g factor would be the verbal-educational and spatial-motor factors, which the author links to a specific hemisphere.

In addition to this, Vernon's model proposes that intelligence can be understood in three parts: A, B and C. Intelligence A understands intelligence as the ability to learn and adapt, intelligence B corresponds to the level of ability demonstrated in behavior, and intelligence C refers to the score obtained in intelligence tests.

5. Thurstone's theory of primary aptitudes

As we have indicated previously, not all authors agreed that intelligence was a single capacity, and there were authors who considered mental capacity to be a composite and multifactorial element. Louis Leon Thurstone did not believe in the existence of a general factor of intelligence, but that different independent factors in their functioning but linked to each other allow guiding behavior in order to be able to face the demands of the environment.

For this reason he developed the theory of primary mental aptitudes, one of the first multifactorial theories of intelligence, in which through factorial analysis he found various aptitudes that allow correct adaptation to the environment. Specifically, Thurstone refers to the capacities of verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, memory, spatial capacity, numerical capacity, perceptual agility/speed and logical reasoning.

6. Guilford's theory of the structure of the intellect.

Another author who opposed the idea of a single intelligence was Joy Paul Guilford. This author presents a theory of intelligence based on a three-dimensional based on a three-dimensional modelin which intellectual operations, contents and products of the intellect are taken into account when assessing any intellectual factor from a point of view similar to the cognitivist one.

The contents of the intellect would refer to the type of information with which the intellect operates on the basis of stimuli, and may be figurative, symbolic, semantic or behavioral content.

Mental operations are understood as the processes from which the information is worked, being cognition, cognitive, semantic or behavioral.These operations are cognition, memory, evaluation, and convergent and divergent production. Finally, mental operations reflect a series of results, which may take the form of information units, classes or concepts, relations, systems, information transformations and a work of association or implication between stimuli and information.

In addition to this operational consideration of mental processes, the author links intelligence to the capacity to generate new strategies and solutions to the problems posed beyond the typical ones, however useful they may be. Thus, intelligence is also related to creativity and divergent thinking..

7. Sternberg's triarchic theory

We cannot fail to see that the above theories focus to a large extent on how intelligence is structured as something internal, without taking into account where it is applied. Robert J. Sternberg also took this fact into account, elaborating his triarchic theory on the basis of which three types of intelligence are considered to exist.

The first of these is analytical intelligence, which corresponds to the traditional idea of intelligence as the capacity to acquire, codify and store information, being able to carry out a theoretical analysis of the situation.

The second of Sternberg's intelligences is practical intelligence, which refers to the capacity for contextualization, i.e. the capacity to select the most adaptive and appropriate behavior or strategy according to the needs and resources derived from the environment. Theoretically, it would be very similar to the crystallized intelligence proposed by Cattell and other authors after him.

Finally, for Sternberg there is one more intelligence, the creative intelligence dealt with in his experiential sub-theory through which we have the capacity to face new situations by working and elaborating strategies based on information acquired throughout life.

8. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence

Howard Gardner has been a critical figure with the idea of the presence of a single intelligence and the fact that it can be measured by a single intelligence. and the fact that it can be measured by IQ. In fact, it should be borne in mind that classical intelligence tests essentially measure logical and verbal skills, and do not take into account the importance of other abilities when it comes to adapting to the environment.

This author considers that it is not possible to speak of a single qualifiable ability as intelligence. He considers that intellectual capacity and performance are due to a conglomerate of mental abilities common to everyone to a greater or lesser extent, establishing different types of intelligence to be applied in different contexts. These "intelligences" that would be hidden behind what we normally consider intelligence would actually be mental processes parallel to each other, unrelated beyond the ability to lead to useful behaviors depending on the new challenges we face.

Specifically, although he is open to the possibility that there are more, Gardner highlights new; logical-mathematical, linguistic, kinesthetic-bodily, intrapersonal, interpersonal, spatial, musical, naturalistic intelligence.

However, in recent years Howard Gardner has pointed out that this classification is only one proposal, and that others may be equally valid. On the other hand, this theory is not the most accepted by the scientific community, which still considers that intelligence can be considered a psychological construct without radical sub-divisions that dilute its existence.

• You can learn more about Gardner's theory in this article: "Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences".

Other theories

There are many other theoretical proposals of intelligence. For example, emotional intelligence proposed by Daniel Goleman is a concept increasingly used among the general population.

This theory considers the ability to identify, manage, modify and manipulate one's own and others' emotions as a form of intelligence to be taken into account. At present, social intelligence is also being discussed, although it could be included within interpersonal intelligence.

Bibliographical references:

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• Legg, S.; Hutter, M. (2007). Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence. Minds and Machines. 17 (4): 391-444.
• Martin, M. (2007). Historical and conceptual analysis of the relations between intelligence and reason. Spain: University of Malaga.
• Trewavas, A. (2005). Green plants as intelligent organisms. Trends in Plant Science. 10(9): pp. 413 - 419.